Attempts To Address The Problem Of Trafficking İn Women At The Brige Connecting Europe And Asia: The Case Of The Former Soviet Republics To Turkey From 1992 To 2016

Table of Content Abstract………...……………………………………………………………………………...iii Preface of the Thesis…………………………………………….…….………………….......iv Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………...………………….v Table of Content……………………………………………………………..…………..……vi List of Tables…………………………………………………………….….………………....x List of Cases………………………………………………………………..……………….…xi Abreviation List………………………………………………………………………...…….xii 1. Introduction 1.1. Introduction…………………………………………………..……………………………..……..1 1.2. The Aim and Tasks of the Thesis…………………………………………………………..…..…..2 1.3. The Scope of the Thesis……………………………………………………………………..…...…2 1.4. The Interdisciplinary Framework of the Research: Cause and Effect Relation…………… ...........3 1.5. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………….….3 1.6. Organization of the thesis………………………………………………………………………..…8 2. Problem of the Trafficking of Women from the Global View to the Domestic Position 2.1. Introduction……………………………………………...…………………………………….…..10 2.2. Globalization and the Dark Face of the Global Trafficking in Women…………………………..10 2.3. The Problem of the Trafficking in Human Beings: Regional Assessment………………………..12 2.4. Turkey: From ‗the Natasha Trade‘ to ‗the Trafficking of Women‘……………………………....13 2.4.1. The Geographical Situation of Turkey and its Place(s) in the UNODC‘s Country Classification…………………………………………………………………………………...…...…13 2.4.2. The Soviet Disintegration; Reflections on Trafficking……………………………………...…..15 2.4.3. The Trafficking of Women from the CIS as an Organized Crime Activity…………………………………………………………………………………………….…..17 2.4.4. The ‗Natasha Trade‘: The New Name of Desperation from 1992 to 2002……………………………………………………………………………………………….…...18 2.4.5. Trafficking of Women to Turkey after 2002…………………………………………….….…..19 2.4.6. Assessment from 1992 to 2016: Trafficking in Human Beings Especially in Women to Turkey…………………………………………….……………………………………………………19 2.5. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..….20 3. Theoretical and Terminological Debates and Controversies over Trafficking in Women vii 3.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………22 3.2. Defining Trafficking in Human Beings…………………………………………………………...22 3.2.1. Elements of Trafficking in Human Beings (Act, Means, and Purposes)......................................24 3.2.2. The Identification Problem: ―Human Trafficking‖ or ―Migrant Smuggling‖?............................25 3.2.3. The Root Causes of Trafficking: ―Push Factors‖ and ―Pull Factors‖…………………………...26 3.2.4. Country Classification: ―Source‖, ―Transit‖, and ―Destination‖ Countries…………………….28 3.3. Theoretical consideration of trafficking in human beings: ‗Migration Approaches‘, Human Trafficking Approaches and Other related theories…………………………………………………....28 3.3.1. Migration Approaches…………………………………………………………….…………….29 3.3.1.1. The neo-classical equilibrium perspective……………………………………………....…….29 3.3.1.2. Historical-structural theory…………………………….………………………………….…..30 3.3.1.3. The World Migration System Approach………….………………………………….……….30 3.3.2. Human Trafficking: Theoretical Approaches……………………………………………..……31 3.3.2.1. Prostitution and Trafficking: Feminist Debates Regarding ‗sex works‘……………………...31 3.3.2.2. The Business Model Approach to Women Trafficking……………………………………....34 3.3.2.3. Women Trafficking for Involuntary Prostitution: Theories Related to Criminology…...……39 3.3.2.4. A Human Rights-Based (Victim Oriented) Approach to Trafficking in Human Beings....…..43 3.3.2.5. Haynes‘s Model to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings…………………………………...46 3.4. Critiques and Assessments Related to Women Trafficking from Various Approaches.………….49 3.4.1. A Gendered Perspective of Trafficking in Persons………………………………………..……49 3.4.2. A Broad Conceptualisation of Trafficking in Persons…………………………………….…….50 3.5. A New Approach against Human Trafficking: The ‗5P‘ Model…………………………...….….51 3.6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...………53 4. International Legal Instruments Regarding Trafficking in Human Beings 4.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..54 4.2. Human Trafficking: the International Feminist Movement and the League of Nations………….54 4.2.1. The White Slave Trade and International Feminist Movement………………………………....55 4.2.2. The Period of the League of Nations and Human Trafficking (1919-1945)…… ……………...56 4.3. The United Nations: Human Trafficking and Human Rights……….………………………….....58 4.4. International Legal Instruments regarding Human Trafficking………......................................….63 4.4.1. Enslavement and sexual violence under the headings ―war crimes‖ and ―crimes against humanity‖……………………………….…….…………………………………………………….….63 viii 4.4.2. Human Trafficking and the Forced Labour Problem……………………………………………66 4.5. Human Trafficking in Transnational Organized Crime……………...…………………………....68 4.6. The Trafficking Protocol…………………………………………………………………….....…71 4.7. Partnership and Perception: The Implementations and Effectiveness of the Trafficking Protocol...................................................................................................................................................74 4.8. Conclusion………………………………………………………….………………………..……77 5. Turkish Efforts related to the Trafficking of Women under Regional and Bilateral Partnerships and their Impact on Turkey‟s Domestic Anti-Trafficking Strategy 5.1. Introduction………………………………………………...…………………………….………..78 5.2. Security Based Partnerships and their Effects on Turkey‘s Anti-Trafficking Regime……………78 5.3. Economic Cooperation based Partnerships and their Effects on Turkey‘s Anti-Trafficking Regime…………………………………………………………………………………………...…….81 5.4. Policy based Partnerships and their Effects on Turkey‘s Anti-Trafficking Regime……….……..83 5.5. Bilateral Agreements, Protocols and Treaties their Effects on Turkey‘s Anti-Trafficking Regime……………………………………………….……………………………………...…………91 5.6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..…………….……92 6. Turkey‟s Legal and Policy Responses against the Trafficking in Human Beings 6.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………...……………...……94 6.2. The Legal Responses of Turkey in Relation to Trafficking in Human Beings…………….……..94 6.2.1. The Transition of Turkish Criminal Law: Criminal Chamber of the High Court of Appeals and Verdicts…………………………………………………………………………………………...……95 6.2.1.1. Crimes Analogous to Trafficking in Human Beings and Their Investigation under the Turkish Criminal Code……………………………………………………………………………………….....96 6.2.1.2. Old and New Problems in the Investigation Process………………………………………….98 6.3. Administrative Responses of Turkey against the Trafficking in Human Beings…………...…...100 6.3.1. National Coordinator Mechanism and Turkey…………………………………………...……100 6.3.2. National Task Force to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings……………………………......101 6.3.3. National Action Plan…………………………………………………………..……….………101 6.3.4. Circular no. 74 and its Directory for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings……………..101 6.3.5. National Action Plan for Enhancing Institutional Capacity Against Trafficking in Human Beings…………………………………..………………………………………………………….…103 6.4. The Foreigners and International Protection Law……………………………………...………..103 6.5. The Treatment of the Victims…………………………………………………….……..……….105 6.6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….111 ix 7. Settling the Deficiencies: Configuration of the Principles of Proposed Anti-Trafficking Strategy for Turkey 7.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………….………….……………..112 7.2. Proposed Obligations in Relation to Trafficking……………………………….……………..…112 7.2.1. Human Trafficking as a Violation of Human Rights……………………………..……………112 7.2.2. Discourage Trafficking in Human Beings………………………………….……………...…..113 7.2.3. Protection and Assistance for Trafficked Victims………………………………..………..…..114 7.2.4. Prosecution for Traffickers and Those Who Aid and Abet…………………………..………..115 7.2.5. National Coordination for Law Enforcement Institutions and NGOs………………………....117 7.2.6. International Cooperation against Trafficking in Human Beings………………………….….117 7.3. Configuration of the Proposed Anti-trafficking Measures for Turkey: the Application of the ―5P‖ model……………………………………...….……………………………...……………………….117 7.4. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...…..122 8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..………….124 Bibliography…………………………………………….……………………….…………………..131 Appendixes……………………………………………………………………………..……………155 x List of Tables Table 1: Numbers of Victims and their origins Table 2: Classification of Intentions Table 3: Difference between migrant smuggling and human trafficking Table 4: Legalization of prostitution from labourist, repressive and prohibitionist approaches Table 5: A Basic Supply Chain Model of Trafficking in Human Beings Table 6: Shelly`s trafficking business models by rate of profit Table 7: Integration of theories Table 8: All relevant legislative and administrative efforts related to human trafficking from 2002 to 2015 xi List of Cases Case No. 2007/1862, Verdict No. 2008/5276 Case No. 2006/10550, Verdict No. 2008/1364 Case No. 2008/12977, Verdict No. 2009/9829 Case No.2013/15232, Verdict No. 2014/2112 ECtHR, Case of Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia, Application no. 25965/04, (ECHR 07 January 2010) ECtHR, Case of M. and Others v. Italy and Bulgaria, Application no.40020/03, (ECHR 31 July 2012) ECtHR, Case of Akkoyunlu v. Turkey (Application no. 7505/06), 13 October 2015 ECtHR Case of İrmak v. Turkey (Application no. 20564/10), 12 January 2016 ECtHR, Case of Barar v. Sweden (Application no. 42367/98) Admissibility Decision of 19 January 1999 ECtHR, Case of Baytar v. Turkey (Application no. 45440/04), 14 January 2015 ECtHR, Case of Bensaid v. the United Kingdom (Application no. 44599/98), 6 February 2001 ECtHR, Case of Luedicke, Belkacem and Koç v. Germany (Application numbers6210/73; 6877/75; 7132/75) 28 November 1978 ECtHR, Case of Opuz v. Turkey (Application no. 33401/02) 09 September 2009 ECtHR, Case of Saman v. Turkey (Application no. 35292/05) 05 April 2011 ECtHR, Case of Trampevski v. the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Application no.4570/07) 10 October 2012 ECtHR, Case of L.R. v. the United Kingdom Application no. 49113/09 (ECHR 14 June 2011) ECtHR, Case of O.G.O. v. the United Kingdom Application no. 13950/12 (ECHR 18 February 2014) ECtHR, Case of D.H. v. Finland Application no. 30815/09 (ECHR 28 June 2011) ECtHR, Case of C.N. v. the United Kingdom, Application no 4239/08 (ECHR, 13 November 2012) ECtHR, Case of C.N. and V. v. France, Application no.67724/09, (ECHR, 11 October 2012) Prosecutor v Krnojelac, Case No IT-97-25-T The Prosecutor v. Akayes, Case No ICTR-96-4-T The Prosecutor v. Kunarac (et al. Foca) Case No. IT-96-23&23/1 The Prosecutors and Peoples of Asia Pacific Region v. Hirohito (Women's Int'l War Crimes Trib. 2000, Dec. 12, 2000) U.S. of America vs. Charles Floyd Pipkins a.k.a. Sir Charles, Andrew Moore, Jr. a.ka. Batman xii Abbreviation List AKP: Justice and Development Party AP: Accession Partnership BSEC: Black Sea Economic Cooperation CATW: Coalition against Trafficking in Women CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CFSP: Common Foreign and Security Policy CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States CoE: Council of Europe EC: European Commission EU: European Union EWL: European Women‘s Lobby FTW: Foundation of Turkish Women GAATW: Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women GRETA: Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings HRDF: Human Resource Development Foundation IAF: International Abolitionist Federation ICC: International Criminal Court ICCPR: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICTR: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTY: International Criminal Tribunals for Former Yugoslavia IGO: Inter-Governmental Organizations IOM: International Organization for Migration MASAK: Financial Crimes Investigation Board MNC: Multinational Corporations NAP: National Action Plan for Asylum and Immigration NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization NGO: Non-Governmental Organizations NPAA: National Programme for the Adoption of the Acquis NSWP: Network for Sex Work Projects NTF: National Task Force OECD-ODIHR: Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights OIC: Organisation of Islamic Cooperation OIC: Organisation of the Islamic Conference OSCE: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe RTUK: Radio and Television Supreme Council xiii SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SIDA: Swedish International Development Agency SP: Stability Pact SPTF: Stability Pact Task Force on Trafficking in Human Beings TIP: U.S. Government‘s trafficking in Persons Report TVPA: Trafficking Victims Protection Act UN.GIFT: UN Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking UN: United Nations UNHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner of Refugee UNODC: United Nations Office Drug and Crimes USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republic